{"id":138491,"date":"2011-09-20T13:11:05","date_gmt":"2011-09-20T12:11:05","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/?p=138491"},"modified":"2011-09-20T13:11:05","modified_gmt":"2011-09-20T12:11:05","slug":"historia-de-las-especias-invasivas-o-invasoras-dos-caras-de-la-misma-moneda-las-lombrices-de-tierra-a-la-conquista-del-nuevo-mundo","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/2011\/09\/20\/138491","title":{"rendered":"Historia de  las Especias Invasivas o Invasoras: Dos Caras de la Misma Moneda (las Lombrices de Tierra a la Conquista del Nuevo Mundo)"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Permitirme que para comenzar este post os escriba una historia, tal como la recuerdo (aunque no s\u00e9 quien me la narr\u00f3, o a donde la le\u00ed). Seguidamente pasaremos a los hechos. <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">\u00c9rase una vez que los colonos llegados a un nuevo mundo <\/span><\/strong>(l\u00e9ase Nueva Zelanda) <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">intentaron generar pastos para el ganado ovino<\/span><\/strong> (m\u00e1s concretamente la <a href=\"http:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oveja_merina\">oveja merina<\/a>). Tambi\u00e9n <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">aterrizaron con tr\u00e9boles para mejorar los pastos. Empero el sistema no funcionaba<\/span><\/strong>. La materia org\u00e1nica no se descompon\u00eda bien, por lo que <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">la producci\u00f3n de la pastura era escasa<\/span><\/strong>. Aunque aquellas lejanas tierras atesoraban multitud de <strong><a href=\"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/2011\/06\/14\/138367\">lombrices de tierra<\/a><\/strong>, no eran las mismas que las de su tierra natal. <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">A uno de aquellos intr\u00e9pidos colonos se le ocurri\u00f3 introducir sus lombrices patrias y al cabo de algunos a\u00f1os todo cambi\u00f3 para bien<\/span><\/strong>, es decir en su beneficio. A la postre, durante siglos<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"> <\/span><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">se<\/span> <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">convirtieron en los principales exportadores de lana en el mundo<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">. <\/span><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Aquel insignificante bichito del suelo lo cambi\u00f3 todo y para siempre. Y \u201ccolor\u00edn colorado, este cuento se ha acabado<\/span>\u201d<\/strong>. Ahora intentemos reconstruir parte de la historia.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ngg-singlepic ngg-right\" src=\"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/42\/files\/818\/pastos-de-nueva-zelanda-con-ovejas-merinas-fuente-john-banagan.jpg\" alt=\"Pastos de nueva Zelanda Fuente John Banagan\" width=\"505\" height=\"316\" \/>\u00a0<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.lonelyplanetimages.com\/images\/196430?group=802985508\">Pastos de Nueva Zelanda con ovejas Merinas Fuente: John Banagan<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><!--more--><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Una de las modas de la ecolog\u00eda actual se centra en el estudio de las especies invasivas o invasoras<\/span><\/strong>, as\u00ed como de los serios da\u00f1os que pueden llegar a ocasionar. Unas veces son <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">introducidas intencionalmente y otras<\/span> <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">no<\/span><\/strong>. Y no es para menos tal preocupaci\u00f3n. La <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">globalizaci\u00f3n<\/span><\/strong> se encuentra generando un enorme trasiego de especies desde sus lugares de origen a otros en donde, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">a menudo, causan estragos medioambientales<\/span><\/strong>. Sin embargo, no se trata de <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">ninguna novedad. Cuando un pueblo invade nuevas tierras e impone su cultura, no suele llegar con las manos vac\u00edas, sino que arrastra consigo parte de su acervo cultural<\/span><\/strong>. Dentro de este \u00faltimo, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">deben incluirse varios animales y\u00a0 plantas para la gesti\u00f3n agraria y ganadera<\/span><\/strong>, al margen de g\u00e9rmenes pat\u00f3genos que afectan a las culturas abor\u00edgenes, tanto como a su biota.\u00a0 <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Siempre ha sido as\u00ed. Como corolario, las especies invasivas o invasoras has existido desde tiempos inmemoriales<\/span><\/strong>. Los humanos adultos, son como ni\u00f1os, lo cambian todo de sitio. Va con nuestra naturaleza. Sea por la raz\u00f3n que sea, en Ocean\u00eda, y m\u00e1s concretamente en Australia y<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong> Nueva Zelanda<\/strong> <\/span>existen, muy bien documentadas,\u00a0 historias de los m\u00e1s variados dislates que el hombre ha generado con el mentado trasigo de especies. Posiblemente la raz\u00f3n estribe en que la mayor\u00eda de tales acontecimientos son bastante m\u00e1s recientes que los de otras colonizaciones precedentes, por cuanto <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">hablamos del siglo XIX<\/span><\/strong>. Si uno se adentra en esta materia comprobar\u00e1 pronto porque <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">los paisajes actuales de aquellas tierras se asemejan muy poco a los que encontraron sus pioneros occidentales al poner pie a tierra por primera vez<\/span><\/strong>.\u00a0 La civilizaci\u00f3n actual no ha cambiado nada, de ah\u00ed que las fechas que se intentan fijar para ese nuevo periodo geol\u00f3gico al que algunos intentan denominar <a href=\"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/2010\/05\/06\/135893\">Antropoceno<\/a> se me antoje un puro dislate, como ya os he comentado en post precedentes.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">\u00a0<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ngg-singlepic ngg-right\" src=\"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-content\/blogs.dir\/42\/files\/818\/bosques-naturales-nueza-zelanda-fuente-giant-bomb.jpg\" alt=\"bosques-naturales-nueza-zelanda-fuente-giant-bomb\" width=\"533\" height=\"290\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.giantbomb.com\/forums\/off-topic\/31\/new-zealandand-why-i-think-its-awesome\/476711\">Bosques naturales, Nueva Zelanda. Fuente: Giant Bomb<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Como os he comentado, no recordaba el origen de esta historia, a pesar de que deseaba escribir un post sobre ella. Me encontraba escribiendo una serie de post sobre esos fant\u00e1sticos <a href=\"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/2010\/07\/30\/136547\">ingenieros del suelo<\/a> que resultan ser las lombrices de tierra, cuando en uno de los art\u00edculos consultados apareci\u00f3 un comentario al respecto. En consecuencia, me puse r\u00e1pidamente a rebuscar en Internet. Tras varias horas el l\u00edo era descomunal. Eso s\u00ed, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">la base de nuestro cuento parec\u00eda estar bien fundada, que no as\u00ed los detalles<\/span><\/strong>. Sin embargo, por mucho que he buscado, no le logrado rehacer la narraci\u00f3n original. A pesar de ello, he compilado abundante informaci\u00f3n adicional.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Podemos comenzar la historia por el final<\/span><\/strong>, para que tanto los que desconocen el idioma del imperio (el suahili o neozeland\u00e9s\u00bf?), como los m\u00e1s j\u00f3venes, no se impacienten. <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Los pastizales y prados de Australia y Nueva Zelanda, no hubieren sido rentables de no haberse incluido en la ecuaci\u00f3n la lombriz de tierra. Las ovejas y el tr\u00e9bol, por si solos, no eran capaces de convertir aquellas tierras desconocidas en inmejorables paisajes pastorales. Tuvimos que llevar tambi\u00e9n ingenieros del suelo<\/span><\/strong>, pero no de los que cultivamos en nuestras universidades, sino <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">los que habitan desde hace millones de a\u00f1os en Europa, bajo nuestros pies. Por tanto esta historia termina bien para el ser humano, como algunas otras, aunque la mayor\u00eda deninieron en puros desastres ecol\u00f3gicos<\/span><\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Vayamos por partes. Al leer<strong> <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">el art\u00edculo de Yolmar R\u00edos<\/span><\/strong> que os incluyo abajo, observar\u00e9is que <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>su experta narraci\u00f3n concuerda a la perfecci\u00f3n con la esencia del cuento<\/strong>.<span style=\"color: #333333;\"> Ahora bien,<\/span> <strong>no he logrado averiguar si introdujimos las lombrices europeas intencionada u accidentalmente<\/strong><\/span>. En el ciberespacio no he logrado encontrar documentaci\u00f3n interesante en espa\u00f1ol-castellano, a excepci\u00f3n del magn\u00edfico trabajo inici\u00e1tico de Yolmar. Por tanto, me vi obligado a buscar en ingl\u00e9s. Al fin y al cabo, resulta ser la lengua de los colonos anglosajones en nueva Zelanda. Ya os narr\u00e9 la <strong><a href=\"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/2011\/04\/26\/138064\">historia del pueblo Maor\u00ed y sus paisajes \u00bfsemipr\u00edtinos?<\/a>\u00a0<\/strong> (por cuanto tampoco eran almas ambientalmente piadosas que vivieran all\u00ed desde siempre, sino que tambi\u00e9n introdujeron especies y transformaron el paisaje pr\u00edstino de aquellos lares poco antes de que arribaran los colonos occidentales). Pero ni aun as\u00ed.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Sin embargo, cabe se\u00f1alar, que <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">de una u otra forma, lo mismo ocurri\u00f3 en Am\u00e9rica. Las lombrices europeas mejoraron los pastos del nuevo mundo, ya fuera intencional o accidentalmente<\/span><\/strong>. Dicho de otro modo, <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">una buena parte de las tierras con pastos del mundo sufrieron tal invasi\u00f3n de gusanos benefactores<\/span><\/strong>. Ya era hora que al menos algo procedente de Europa ayudara tambi\u00e9n a los pueblos abor\u00edgenes de los nuevos mundos, para variar.<strong> <span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">Abajo os ofrezco todo tipo de detalles concatenados. Cada uno de ellos comienza con t\u00edtulos o palabras enlazadas a los documentos de los que extraje algunos p\u00e1rrafos<\/span><\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Eso s\u00ed, ya <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">en tiempos m\u00e1s recientes, las arrinconadas lombrices de Ocean\u00eda<\/span><\/strong> (por cuanto tambi\u00e9n muchas especies desaparecieron o fueron relegadas por las europeas a unos pocos h\u00e1bitats, como tambi\u00e9n les ocurri\u00f3 a los Maor\u00edes) <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">lograron fraguar su venganza<\/span><\/strong>. Ya sabemos lo que dice el refr\u00e1n: \u201cla venganza debe servirse en plato fri\u00f3\u201d. Pues bien, resulta que,<strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"> ciertos pa\u00edses<\/span><\/strong>, del hemisferio norte (fundamentalmente) ahora <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">se encuentran preocupados, a causa de que las provenientes de las ant\u00edpodas han invadido ciertos ecosistemas generando \u201cal parecer\u201d da\u00f1os ambientales<\/span><\/strong>. Pero ese es otro tema. Os dejo pues con todo lo que he considerado que podr\u00eda ser de alguna relevancia a los interesados en aprender un poco m\u00e1s, eso s\u00ed con conocimientos de ingl\u00e9s. No os indigest\u00e9is, el n\u00facleo de la historia ya lo he narrado. Del mismo modo, ya hemos editado cinco post sobre las extraordinarias virtudes y alg\u00fan que otro defecto (para los intereses del hombre) de esos extraordinarios gusanos del suelo a los que denominamos lombrices de tierra. El anexo que abajo expongo, ha sido obtenido esa \u201cnovedosa t\u00e9cnica inform\u00e1tica, que se ha convenido en denominar <strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">miner\u00eda de datos<\/span><\/strong> (<em>data mining<\/em>). La \u00fanica diferencia estriba en que, personalmente, he utilizado redes neuronales de carbono (las de mi cerebro) en lugar de las de silicio (de los PC), mucho m\u00e1s pedestres.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #008000;\">Juan Jos\u00e9 Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/avpa.ula.ve\/eventos\/viii_encuentro_monogastricos\/sistemas_integrados\/conferencia-8.pdf\">Importancia de las lombrices en la agricultura por Yolmar R\u00edos S.<\/a>; Universidad Centroccidental \u201cLisandro Alvarado\u201d. Decanato de Agronom\u00eda. C\u00e1tedra de Zoolog\u00eda Agr\u00edcola. E-mail: <a href=\"mailto:yrios@ucla.edu.ve\">yrios@ucla.edu.ve<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>En Nueva Zelanda, la introducci\u00f3n de lombrices en pastizales<\/strong> logr\u00f3 un incremento considerable en la calidad y cantidad del forraje cosechado (\u2026).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>La introducci\u00f3n de especies apropiadas de lombrices o el estimulo de las poblaciones naturales a trav\u00e9s de la adici\u00f3n de enmiendas convenientes pueden incrementar la tasa de mejoramiento y formaci\u00f3n de estructura del suel<\/strong>o.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>La introducci\u00f3n de una especie europea en pastizales en Nueva Zelanda y Australia, incrementaron<\/strong> en gran medida la estructura del suelo y la productividad de las plantas.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Algunas experiencias exitosas en la introducci\u00f3n de lombrices en zonas mineras en recuperaci\u00f3n han tenido efectos positivos sobre el desarrollo estructural del suelo, ciclo de nutrientes y productividad (Hoogerkamb <em>etal. <\/em>1983). A nivel nacional se viene trabajando con la introducci\u00f3n de lombrices en la recuperaci\u00f3n de suelos contaminados con hidrocarburos.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">De acuerdo a Wikipedia: <a href=\"http:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fauna_de_Australia\">La clase <\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oligochaeta\">Oligochaeta<\/a> agrupa a muchas familias de gusanos acu\u00e1ticos, pero s\u00f3lo a dos terrestres: los <a title=\"Enchytraeidae (a\u00fan no redactado)\" href=\"http:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Enchytraeidae&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1\">Enchytraeidae<\/a> y los <a title=\"Megascolecidae (a\u00fan no redactado)\" href=\"http:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Megascolecidae&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1\">Megascolecidae<\/a>. Esta \u00faltima incluye a la mayor lombriz de tierra existente, Megascolides australis, t\u00edpico de <a href=\"http:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gippsland\">Gippsland<\/a>, <a title=\"Victoria (Australia)\" href=\"http:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Victoria_(Australia)\">Victoria<\/a>, que posee una media de 80\u00a0cm de longitud, pero algunos ejemplares alcanzan los 3,7\u00a0m.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.inia.cl\/remehue\/publicaciones\/online\/boletin_tecnico\/248\/cap1.pdf\">ROL DE LAS LOMBRICES (OLIGOQUETOS) EN EL ECOSISTEMA PRATENSE. PRIMERA CLASIFICACI\u00d3N DE LA POBLACI\u00d3N DE LA D\u00c9CIMA REGI\u00d3N<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">Marta Alfaro V., Juan C. Dumont L.,\u00a0 M\u00f3nica Santelices S.,<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u201cNueva Zelanda encontr\u00f3 poblaciones de entre 683 y 1067 individuos\/m<sup>2<\/sup>\u201d.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><em>Allolobophora caliginosa<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Esta especie se encuentra pr\u00e1cticamente en toda clase de h\u00e1bitats, particularmente en suelos cultivados, parques, jardines, pastizales, tambi\u00e9n en r\u00edos embancados y limos, arena y grava. A menudo, es num\u00e9ricamente dominante en pastizales. Se le puede encontrar en localidades muy secas as\u00ed como tambi\u00e9n en zonas h\u00famedas. Generalmente no est\u00e1 presente en suelos \u00e1cidos, ya que es \u00e1cido intolerante. Es una especie muy \u00abproductora de humus\u00bb y juega un peque\u00f1o rol en la transformaci\u00f3n de las hojas.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Distribuci\u00f3n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Dispersa en muchas partes del mundo donde generalmente reemplaza a las especies nativas especialmente en pastizales, siembras de cereales y jardines pero raramente bajo vegetaci\u00f3n nativa. Ej.: India, Australia, Nueva Zelanda. Esta especie deposita sus deyecciones en la superficie del suelo.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><em>Lumbricus terrestris<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Habitat<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Casi puramente terrestre. Se encuentra en jardines, suelos arables y pastizales<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">y bosques. Especialmente abundante en suelos arcillosos. Junto con <em>Allolobophora longa, <\/em>esta especie forma los agregados de mayor tama\u00f1o. Toma los alimentos desde la superficie y los arrastra hasta sus largas galer\u00edas<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">en donde sufren un proceso de descomposici\u00f3n bacteriano, antes de ser ingeridos. Deposita sus desechos en la superficie del suelo.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Distribuci\u00f3n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Es una especie que se encuentra en toda Europa, Madeira, Azores, Norte Am\u00e9rica, Islas Falkland y Nueva Zelanda. Es una especie introducida y de amplia distribuci\u00f3n en Chile.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><em>Lumbricus rubellus<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Habitat<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">En lugares h\u00famedos y ricos en materia org\u00e1nica. A menudo abundante en parques, jardines, pastizales, bajo piedras, musgos, hojas ca\u00eddas y c\u00famulos de guano. Esta especie forma peque\u00f1os agregados en el interior del suelo, siendo dif\u00edcil encontrarla aislada. Muy activa.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Distribuci\u00f3n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Especie introducida en Chile, de amplia distribuci\u00f3n. Ej.: esparcida en toda Europa, Siberia, Turquest\u00e1n, India, Norte Am\u00e9rica, Nueva Zelanda y Australia.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><em>Allolobophora chlorotica<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Habitat<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Se encuentra en diferentes h\u00e1bitats. Por lo general es num\u00e9ricamente dominante en tierras arables y pastizales, com\u00fan entre o cerca de las ra\u00edces de las plantas. Se las encuentra en h\u00e1bitats con amplio rango de humedad: en suelos h\u00famedos, en pozas y lagos.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Distribuci\u00f3n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Presenta una amplia distribuci\u00f3n natural, pero tambi\u00e9n ha sido introducida en distintas partes del mundo como Chile. Es conocida en toda Europa, Siria, Azores, Canarias, Bermudas, Am\u00e9rica del Norte, Am\u00e9rica del Sur y Nueva Zelanda.Una particularidad de la especie es el hecho de que cuando se las perturba reacciona enrroll\u00e1ndose, pero no escapa. Su coloraci\u00f3n muchas veces es verdosa debido a un pigmento de la musculatura estriada.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.teara.govt.nz\/en\/earthworms\/3\"><strong>Earthworms in New Zealand<\/strong><\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/www.teara.govt.nz\/en\/earthworms\/3\/1\"><br \/>\n<\/a>New Zealand has at least 171 species of native earthworms and 23 non-native species. Scientific knowledge is continually improving; the current known species are:<\/p>\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify;\">\n<li>123 species of <em>Acanthodrilidae<\/em>, two introduced (non-native)<\/li>\n<li>53 species of <em>Megascolecidae<\/em> (three introduced)<\/li>\n<li>17 species of <em>Lumbricidae <\/em>(all introduced)<\/li>\n<li>one species of <em>Glossoscolecidae <\/em>(introduced).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Several native species grow to 30 centimetres or more. The longest, <em>Spenceriella gigantea<\/em>, grows to 1.3 metres.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #008080;\">Distribution<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"><strong>Although once widespread, today New Zealand\u2019s native earthworms are mostly confined to areas where the soil is disturbed less often \u2013 forests, old gardens, hills and mountains<\/strong><\/span>. There are 36 known native species that live in forest litter. Seven species have been recorded from Stewart Island.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"color: #008080;\"><strong>Lumbricids: introduced earthworms.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0Earthworms known as lumbricids arrived with European settlers in the 19th century. They were generally brought by accident, among plants, or in the soil used as ships\u2019 ballast. This was offloaded at the ports, and the worms gradually spread outwards. Some farmers, after seeing the benefits, introduced earthworms to their land.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><em>Aporrectodea caliginosa<\/em>, probably New Zealand\u2019s most common lumbricid, also dwells in topsoil. During summer it aestivates (the equivalent of hibernating in winter) \u2013 often about 30 centimetres below ground.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">As native forest has been replaced by exotic plants and farmland, introduced species have come to dominate. Some are widespread, probably through deliberate introduction from overseas or locally, or from being carried on machinery or produce.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<strong><span style=\"color: #008080;\">Weight and number of earthworms<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In native forests the weight of earthworms has been found to be greater than that of all other animal groups in the area, including birds and mammals.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0In grazed, fertile pastures the earthworm weight may also exceed that of the grazing animals. The mean weight of earthworms in some of New Zealand\u2019s best agricultural soils ranges from about 640 to 3,000 kilograms per hectare. Compare this with 15 sheep per hectare, weighing about 800 kilograms in total.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">There may be up to 1,000 earthworms per square metre, or 10 million per hectare. Numbers are at a maximum in spring, and are usually lowest after summer droughts.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0In less intensively farmed and less productive hill country, there may be only a few hundred worms per square metre, including a few native species such as the large Octochaetus multiporus. Of course, the number and weight of grazing animals on hill-country pasture is also less.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.asap.asn.au\/livestocklibrary\/1964\/Barley64.PDF\">EARTHWORMS AND THE DECAY OF PLANT LITTER AND DUNG-A REVIEW<\/a><\/p>\n<p>K. P. BARLEY*<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<strong>Where exotic herbage plants are grown in southern Australia and New Zealand, European lumbricid worms are often numerous. They tend to replace the indigenous earthworm species (Miller, Stout, and Lee 1955), as well as other litter feeders such as the Termitidae that are adapted to the natural grasslands<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0Earthworms are abundant not only in moist localities, but also under annual pastures in areas where they have to survive dry summers. Although some species tunnel into the subsoil to avoid drought, the more commonly found lumbricids remain in the dry top soil where they survive the loss of three quarters of their water content. At the other extreme, prolonged flooding causes death, but earthworms tolerate short periods of flooding, and very large numbers are found under pastures irrigated by flood methods. (\u2026)<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0(\u2026) At Hindon, <strong>New Zealand<\/strong><strong>, the introduction of the lumbricid, <em>A. caliginosa<\/em>, into sown pastures has led to the mixing of lime and litter lying on or near the surface with<\/strong> the top 6 in. of soil (Stockdill 1959). On the Riverine Plain in Australia <strong>it has been found that a mat of leaf litter and dung accumulates when dry grasslands are first irrigated and sown with exotic pasture plants. The endemic fauna that incorporates litter does not appear to be effective on the irrigated pastures, and it has recently been shown (Barley and Kleinig 1964) that the establishment of a dense population of A. caliginosa leads to the disappearance of the mat.<\/strong> As the mat contains as much as 130 lb\/acre (147kg\/hectare) of nitrogen in organic forms, there will be much interest in measuring any change in mineralization rate that may accompany earthworm activity.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0Bornemissza ( 1960) drew attention to the long period-six months or more-during which dung pads remained on top of the ground at Boolarra, Victoria. <strong>He suggested that the endemic coprophagous insect fauna was not well adapted to the dung of introduced livestock, and that the introduction of new scarab species might lead to more rapid incorporation of the dung. In the present stage of knowledge a broad view of any possible deficiencies in the Australian invertebrate soil fauna is desirable<\/strong>, and observations should not be confined to one or two families of soil animals.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">We have seen that the direct effects of earthworms on decay are small, but the indirect effects may sometimes be large. We should also consider the amount of nutrients that may be incorporated in or released from body tissue when the animals increase or decrease in weight. As the total nitrogen content of the soil fauna in temperate grasslands is of the order of 50 lb\/acre (57kg\/hectare), such changes may not be entirely negligible in relation to amounts of nitrogen available for pasture growth.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<strong><span style=\"color: #008080;\">V. EFFECTS ON PASTURE PRODUCTION<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Where earthworms are absent or few in number, it will usually be found that the soil is not suitable or that there is insufficient food to support larger numbers<\/strong>. T<strong>he mere addition of more worms will not lead to any permanent increase in the population. In what circumstances, if any, is the deliberate introduction of earthworms likely to lead to a permanent increase in worm numbers, and perhaps to an increase in productivity?<\/strong> There may be some possibilities, particularly where previously unsuitable areas have been changed in ways that make them suitable for \u2018earthworms. As the rate of spread of earthworms is slow, a long period may elapse before worms fully occupy new areas.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<strong>For example, when previously arid lands are developed for the production of irrigated pastures, conditions suitable for dense earthworm populations are likely to be created. However<\/strong>, if the area is isolated, more than 10 years may elapse before suitable species are accidentally introduced, and<strong> a further period of 10 years may be required before populations build up to high levels<\/strong> (Barley and Kleinig 1959). There may be other situations where there is a lag between the establishment of favourable conditions and the arrival of adapted earthworm species: for example, after the drainage of previously swampy lands, after the liming of acid soils, or after the change-over from scrub lands to productive pastures.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<strong>There is evidence from field trials in New Zealand to show that the introduction of earthworms of southern European origin can increase the yield of sown pastures<\/strong> (Hamblyn and Dingwall 1945; Richards 1955; Stockdill 1959).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>In the <\/strong><strong>New Zealand<\/strong><strong> experiments, begun in 1926, earthworms were introduced into areas that were isolated, or where the soils were naturally acid and had recently been limed. The populations spread from inoculated sites at the rate of lOm.\/year, and after four to eight years the areas populated by the worms were producing an additional 2,000 lb\/acre (22OOkg\/hectare) of the dry matter in the winter-spring period<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/eap.mcgill.ca\/publications\/eap6.htm\">The accidental introduction of earthworms to North America<\/a> <strong>may have<\/strong><strong> been the best outcome of contact between the early settlers and native peoples. While the Indians suffered from lack of exposure and immunity to European diseases, the fertility of many North American soils was greatly enhanced through the recycling of organic matter by earthworms<\/strong> (\u2026)<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0Earthworms have been successfully introduced into areas where they are absent and have been found to increase the yield of crops. The long-term benefits of encouraging earthworms can be translated into dollars. <strong>Researchers have estimated that for every dollar invested in earthworms on New Zealand sheep farms, the farmer can expect a return of $3.34 and an increase in carrying capacity of 2.5 stock units\/hectare or an increase in productivity of 25-30 per cent<\/strong> (Crump 1969).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sarep.ucdavis.edu\/worms\/werner.htm\"><strong>Introduction of earthworms to<\/strong><\/a> areas not previously populated has led to improvement of soil quality and productivity in New Zealand grassland (Martin, 1977), on drained Dutch polders (Van Rhee, 1977), in heathland in Ireland (Curry and Bolger 1984), and in mining spoils in the U.S. (Vimmerstedt and Finney, 1973).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<strong><a href=\"http:\/\/www.ravensdown.co.nz\/Resources\/Technical+Notes\/Soil+Biology\/11.6+Understanding+Earthworms.htm\">The importance of earthworms in pasture soils <\/a><\/strong><strong><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Earthworms are an essential factor in productive soils in New Zealand<\/strong>. They improve the fertility of pasture soil by burying and decomposing dead plant material, making nutrients available, and by improving the drainage and aeration of the soil. Farmers should be able to recognise useful worm species, and should consider introducing them into pastures if they are absent.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<strong><a href=\"http:\/\/www.ravensdown.co.nz\/Resources\/Technical+Notes\/Soil+Biology\/11.6+Understanding+Earthworms.htm\">Earthworm species <\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>There are at least 200 species of earthworms in <\/strong><strong>New Zealand<\/strong><strong>, but only a small number of<\/strong><strong> introduced species are beneficial in pastures<\/strong>. The most useful species is Allolobophora caliginosa. Soils lacking this worm will probably benefit from its introduction. Other useful species include Allolobophora rosea, Allolobophora trapezoids, Allolobophora longa, Allolobophora chlorotica, and Lumbricus terrestris<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.ravensdown.co.nz\/Resources\/Technical+Notes\/Soil+Biology\/11.6+Understanding+Earthworms.htm\"><strong>Introducing earthworms to pasture<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Earthworms can be introduced simply by lifting turfs from a highly populated area and placing them on the deficient pasture with a liberal dressing of lime around each. As the turfs dry out the worms move from them to the moister soil beneath. Turfs are spaced 10m apart in 10m rows; each hectare requires 100 turfs and 50 kg lime. Turfs should be placed with the grass side down. This prevents them from taking root, and provides good contact with the ground and a food supply of rotting pasture for the worms. Earthworms should be introduced when the soil is moist. At that time, the maximum number of worms will be in the surface soil in the source area, and they will have the best chance of moving into the deficient pasture<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<strong><span style=\"color: #008080;\">Inciso de Un Universo Invisible<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">La <span style=\"color: #008080;\"><strong>introducci\u00f3n del tr\u00e9bol blanco (<em>Trifolim repens<\/em>)<\/strong><\/span> tambi\u00e9n ha sido muy importante con vias a potenciar la productividad y palatabilidad de los pastos de Nueva Zelanda y sus \u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep\">Merino sheeps<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<strong><span style=\"color: #008080;\">Y sobre la introducci\u00f3n en Ocean\u00eda de las Ovejas<\/span><\/strong> <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep\">Wikipedia nos informa de que<\/a>:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0In Australia and New Zealand<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Main articles: <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agriculture_in_Australia\">Agriculture in Australia<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agriculture_in_New_Zealand\">Agriculture in New Zealand<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><em>Further information: <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1891_Australian_shearers%27_strike\">1891 Australian shearers&#8217; strike<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Australia and New Zealand are crucial players in the contemporary sheep industry,<\/strong> and sheep are an iconic part of both countries&#8217; culture and economy. <strong>New Zealand has the highest density of sheep per capita<\/strong> (sheep outnumber the human population 12 to 1), a<strong>nd Australia is the world&#8217;s indisputably largest exporter of sheep and cattle<\/strong>.<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep#cite_note-94#cite_note-94\">[95]<\/a> In 2007, New Zealand even declared 15 February their official <a title=\"National Lamb Day (page does not exist)\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=National_Lamb_Day&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1\">National Lamb Day<\/a> to celebrate the country&#8217;s history of sheep production.<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep#cite_note-95#cite_note-95\">[96]<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0The <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First_Fleet\">First Fleet<\/a><strong> brought the initial population of 70 sheep from the<\/strong> <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cape_of_Good_Hope\">Cape of Good Hope<\/a> to<strong> <\/strong><strong>Australia<\/strong><strong> in 1788<\/strong>.<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep#cite_note-unsw-96#cite_note-unsw-96\">[97]<\/a> The next shipment was of 30 sheep from <a title=\"Calcutta\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Calcutta\">Calcutta<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ireland\">Ireland<\/a> in<strong> 1793<\/strong>.<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep#cite_note-unsw-96#cite_note-unsw-96\">[97]<\/a> All of the early sheep brought to Australia were exclusively used for the dietary needs of the penal colonies.<strong> The beginnings of the Australian wool industry were due to the efforts of<\/strong> <a title=\"John Macarthur (wool pioneer)\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Macarthur_(wool_pioneer)\">Captain John Macarthur<\/a>.<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep#cite_note-unsw-96#cite_note-unsw-96\">[97]<\/a> <strong>At Macarthur&#8217;s urging 16 Spanish merinos were imported in 1797, effectively beginning the Australian sheep industry<\/strong>.<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep#cite_note-unsw-96#cite_note-unsw-96\">[97]<\/a> By 1801 Macarthur had 1,000 head of sheep, and in 1803 he exported 111 kilograms (245\u00a0lb) of wool to England.<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep#cite_note-unsw-96#cite_note-unsw-96\">[97]<\/a> Today, Macarthur is generally thought of as the father of the Australian sheep industry.<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sheep#cite_note-unsw-96#cite_note-unsw-96\">[97]<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">\u00a0<strong><span style=\"color: #008080;\">Inciso de Un Universo Invisible<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">El art\u00edculo cient\u00edfico m\u00e1s citado en la bibliograf\u00eda es este<\/span> <\/strong>y se encuentra<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\"> <\/span><strong><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">en acceso abierto<\/span>. <\/strong>Tan solo os muestro el resumen<strong>. Pinchando en el enlace pod\u00e9is bajaros el trabajo original, es decir el siguiente:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/eprints.qut.edu.au\/37788\/1\/cona2282.pdf\">GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT AND CONVERSION INTO GRASSLAND:<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/eprints.qut.edu.au\/37788\/1\/cona2282.pdf\">EFFECTS ON SOIL CARBON<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/eprints.qut.edu.au\/37788\/1\/cona2282.pdf\">RICHARD T. CONANT, KEITH PAUSTIAN, AND EDWARD T. ELLIOTT<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><em><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/em><em><strong>Abstract<\/strong>. <\/em>Grasslands are heavily relied upon for food and forage production. A key component for sustaining production in grassland ecosystems is the maintenance of soil organic matter (SOM), which can be strongly influenced by management. Many management techniques intended to increase forage production may potentially increase SOM, thus sequestering atmospheric carbon (C). Further, conversion from either cultivation or native vegetation into grassland could also sequester atmospheric carbon. We reviewed studies examining the influence of improved grassland management practices and conversion into grasslands on soil C worldwide to assess the potential for C sequestration. Results from 115 studies containing over 300 data points were analyzed. Management improvements included fertilization (39%), improved grazing management (24%), conversion from cultivation (15%) and native vegetation (15%), sowing of legumes (4%) and grasses (2%), earthworm introduction (1%), and irrigation (1%). Soil C content and concentration increased with improved management in 74% of the studies, and mean soil C increased with all types of improvement. Carbon sequestration rates were highest during the first 40 yr after treatments began and tended to be greatest in the top 10 cm of soil. <strong>Impacts were greater in woodland and grassland biomes than in forest, desert, rain forest, or shrubland biomes. Conversion from cultivation, the introduction of earthworms, and irrigation resulted in the largest increases<\/strong>. Rates of C sequestration by type of improvement ranged from 0.11 to 3.04 Mg C\u00b7ha21 yr21, with a mean of 0.54 Mg C\u00b7ha21\u00b7yr21, and were highly influenced by biome type and climate. <strong>We conclude that grasslands can act as a significant carbon sink with the implementation of improved management<\/strong>.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Permitirme que para comenzar este post os escriba una historia, tal como la recuerdo (aunque no s\u00e9 quien me la narr\u00f3, o a donde la le\u00ed). Seguidamente pasaremos a los hechos. \u00c9rase una vez que los colonos llegados a un nuevo mundo (l\u00e9ase Nueva Zelanda) intentaron generar pastos para el ganado ovino (m\u00e1s concretamente la oveja merina). Tambi\u00e9n aterrizaron con tr\u00e9boles para mejorar los pastos. Empero el sistema no funcionaba. La materia org\u00e1nica no se descompon\u00eda bien, por lo que la producci\u00f3n de la pastura era escasa. Aunque aquellas lejanas tierras atesoraban multitud de lombrices de tierra, no eran las\u2026<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":26,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"ngg_post_thumbnail":0},"categories":[596,608,603,618,599,589,600],"tags":[47012,47000,7174],"blocksy_meta":{"styles_descriptor":{"styles":{"desktop":"","tablet":"","mobile":""},"google_fonts":[],"version":4}},"aioseo_notices":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/138491"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/26"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=138491"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/138491\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":140371,"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/138491\/revisions\/140371"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=138491"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=138491"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.madrimasd.org\/blogs\/universo\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=138491"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}