Los materiales nanoestructurados en nuestra vida diaria. Entrevista a Rosa Menéndez.
Entrevista realizada por Lorena Cabeza (DIVULGA) para Profes.net
Rosa Menéndez nació en Corollos, Asturias, en 1956. Tras graduarse en Química y doctorarse en esta misma disciplina por la Universidad de Oviedo en 1986, pudo llevar a cabo varias estancias postdoctorales en Inglaterra y Estados Unidos. En 1989 se incorpora al Instituto Nacional del Carbón del CSIC, donde actualmente lleva a cabo su trabajo como profesora de investigación. Entre los años 2003 y 2008 ha sido directora de este instituto, y entre 2008 y 2009 ostentó el cargo de vicepresidenta de Investigación Científica y Técnica del CSIC. Es autora de más de 160 artículos en revistas científicas de impacto y ha dirigido 16 tesis doctorales. Su investigación se centra en la química de los materiales y la energía, y en concreto en la mejora de los procesos de conversión del carbón y la puesta en valor de sus derivados y los del petróleo. También dirige una línea de investigación sobre la síntesis química del grafeno, un material que puede revolucionar nuestras vidas en un futuro cercano.
¿Qué trabajo lleva a cabo en el INCAR?
R.- Desde comienzos de los años 90 venimos desarrollando materiales de carbono de características muy distintas, como fibras de carbono, materiales compuestos, carbones activados y en los últimos años materiales grafénicos. Partiendo de derivados del carbón y del petróleo, preparamos precursores específicos para cada tipo de material. Y el material, a su vez, viene condicionado por la aplicación para la que está previsto. Nuestros materiales encuentran aplicación en el sector aeronáutico, con materiales compuestos; el almacenamiento de energía, con carbones activados y grafenos; la catálisis, con carbones activados y grafenos; y el medio ambiente, con carbones activados y grafenos para la eliminación de contaminantes en vertidos industriales.
¿Qué son los materiales nanoestructurados? ¿Cuál es su ventaja respecto a otros materiales convencionales?
R.- Desde que se comenzó a trabajar en nanotecnología, en la década de los 80, se han tratado de desarrollar nuevos métodos de producción de materiales constituidos por cristales de un tamaño inferior a los 100 nanómetros, los llamados materiales nanoestructurados. Cuando se reduce el tamaño de los materiales al rango nanométrico, se inducen diferencias en sus propiedades físicas. También los procesos superficiales se ven fuertemente alterados. Por ello, un control preciso de las dimensiones de los materiales en el rango de los nanómetros nos permite variar sus propiedades. Esto abre la puerta al diseño de materiales para mercados muy diversos como las aplicaciones biomédicas, ópticas, en energía, etc.
¿Están presentes los materiales nanoestructurados en nuestra vida diaria?
R.- Lo están desde hace años. Por ejemplo, los ordenadores han experimentado desde los años 90 mejoras muy importantes debido precisamente al uso de materiales nanoestructurados. Los paneles solares fabricados con nanomateriales también permiten minimizar el empleo de bloques de silicio. Otros materiales comunes que contienen nanopartículas son las cremas solares, donde se emplean para absorber la radiación UV, además de para facilitar su incorporación a la piel. También se emplean nanopartículas de plata como agentes biocidas para minimizar el riesgo de contraer infecciones. Los nanomateriales también están presentes en el deporte: bicicletas con nanotubos de carbono, raquetas de tenis reforzadas con estos nanotubos, etc. Y todavía son muchas más las aplicaciones que se esperan en los próximos años: leds fabricados a partir de puntos cuánticos mucho más baratos que los actuales, materiales capaces de introducirse en nuestro cuerpo y atacar selectivamente células cancerígenas, etc.
¿Son estos materiales seguros?
R.- La mayoría de los nanomateriales no son más peligrosos que sus equivalentes “macro”. Por ejemplo, los materiales en forma de películas delgadas que conforman las memorias de los ordenadores no son más dañinas por el hecho de ser nano. En general, debemos distinguir dos casos: uno, los nanomateriales adheridos a otros materiales, que no resultan más peligrosas que las micropartículas correspondientes (depende solo de su naturaleza: el arsénico es igual de tóxico nanoestructurado o no); y dos, nanopartículas dispersas en el aire, que pueden resultar más peligrosas al ser inhaladas.
¿Cuáles son los materiales avanzados más prometedores en los que se está investigando?
R.- El mundo de los materiales es muy amplio, pero todo lo relacionado con nanomateriales, láminas delgadas y materiales inteligentes está dentro de lo más prometedor. En concreto, existen grandes expectativas en relación con los materiales grafénicos por su gran potencial para aplicaciones que van desde el campo de las comunicaciones y microelectrónica a otros ámbitos como la química fina y la energía, en producción y almacenamiento. Se trata de un material con unas propiedades electrónicas únicas, además de una especial resistencia y flexibilidad.
¿Qué características son las que hacen del grafeno un material tan especial?
R.- El grafeno, formado por una capa de átomos de carbono, es a la vez metálico, flexible y transparente. Es resistente, sus constantes elásticas son las más altas que se han medido en un material, y admite tensiones muy elevadas sin romperse. Es además muy impermeable, ya que no permite el paso de átomos y moléculas a pesar de su pequeño espesor. Desde el punto de vista químico es un material inerte.
¿En qué aplicaciones concretas se espera que se use?
R.- El hecho de presentar unas excelentes propiedades mecánicas, térmicas, eléctricas y ópticas, le convierte en candidato para un gran número de aplicaciones en áreas tan diversas como la nanoelectrónica, los sensores moleculares, las telecomunicaciones, los componentes mecánicos, en forma de material compuesto, almacenamiento de energía y salud, por ejemplo, en la liberación controlada de fármacos.
¿En qué fase se encuentra la investigación sobre grafenos?
R.- La investigación sobre grafenos avanza de forma rápida, a pasos agigantados científicamente hablando. En estos momentos el objetivo es buscar procesos que permitan su obtención en grandes cantidades, de forma competitiva desde el punto de vista económico y energético, y respetando el medio ambiente. Las expectativas superan con creces a las planteadas por los fullerenos y nanotubos de carbono en su día, y parecen estar más próximas a su materialización. Tienen la ventaja de la variedad y simplicidad de los procesos y de la variedad en la calidad de los materiales, con lo que pueden ser utilizados en aplicaciones muy diversas. Para la utilización masiva de los grafenos todavía queda mucho camino por recorrer y mucha investigación por realizar.
¿Cómo se obtiene el grafeno?
R.- Se utilizan fundamentalmente dos vías para su síntesis, a partir del grafito o materiales grafíticos: mediante la separación de las láminas de grafeno individuales mecánicamente o por vía química -lo que se denomina método top-down-, y mediante síntesis química o depósito en fase de vapor a partir de moléculas más pequeñas –el método bottom-up-. La primera incluye también la obtención de grafenos mediante apertura de nanotubos. Cada una de ellas dispone de un amplio abanico de precursores y condiciones de proceso que enriquecen o dificultan, según se mire, la consecución del material final. En nuestro grupo los estamos preparando por vía química, utilizando distintos grafitos de partida y aplicando distintos procedimientos de reducción, y también por apertura de nanofibras y nanotubos, y mediante exfoliación mecánica del grafito.
Y, ¿qué hay de los fullerenos?
R.- Los fullerenos han marcado un hito desde el punto de vista científico. Se mostró al mundo una nueva forma de carbono que nadie hubiese imaginado. Supusieron un salto cualitativo en la ciencia del carbono, hasta entonces basada en las dos formas alotrópicas conocidas por todos, el grafito y el diamante. Se ha trabajado intensamente en la búsqueda de aplicaciones para este material en campos como la biomedicina o la energía, pero en mi opinión no se han consolidado y siguen siendo materia de investigación después de más de veinte años. También es relevante el que abrieran el camino al descubrimiento de los nanotubos de carbono, que sí se están produciendo a escala industrial y están ampliando considerablemente su rango de aplicaciones.
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