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Congreso de Karlsruhe: 150 años.
Hoy se cumplen 150 años de la inauguración del Congreso de Karlsruhe, que marcó el comienzo de la Química moderna.
Antes del Congreso, la Química era un caos. Los químicos de la época (muchos de ellos brillantísimos con gran influencia en la historia de la ciencia) no se ponían de acuerdo sobre la existencia o no (y la distinción) entre átomo y molécula; había una enorme confusión entre peso atómico (asignando pesos atómicos distintos a los mismos elementos), peso molecular y peso equivalente; y no había acuerdo en la nomenclatura, formulación y símbolos químicos.
Para intentar debatir ideas y llegar a algún acuerdo sobre los aspectos indicados en el párrafo anterior, Kekulé, Wurtz y Weltzien convocaron un congreso para los días 3, 4 y 5 de septiembre de 1860 en la ciudad alemana de Karlsruhe. Se invitó a todos los químicos del mundo y el Congreso tuvo una gran asistencia, con 127 participantes de 12 países (un español, el profesor Ramon Torres, de la universidad central de Madrid), la mayoría (126) de países europeos y un mexicano (Posselt). Algunos de los químicos más destacados asistieron, entre los que cabe citar a Bunsen, Baeyer, Erlenmeyer, Hoffmann, Meyer, Frankland, Kekulé, Dumas, Wurtz, Crum Brown, Borodin (el famoso músico, también profesor de Química) y Wislicenus. Al congreso también asistieron dos jóvenes químicos, Cannizzaro (1826-1910) y Mendeleev (1834-1907). Uno de ellos (Cannizzaro) tuvo una influencia enorme en el desarrollo del Congreso; y el otro (Mendeleev) recibió inspiración fundamental para desarrollar la Tabla Periódica de los Elementos Químicos (1869).
Stanislao Cannizzaro, basándose en la hipótesis de Avogadro, había elaborado un documento (adaptado a partir de uno escrito en 1858, Sunto di un corso di Filosofia Chimica) explicando las diferencias entre átomo y molécula; así como en las distinciones entre pesos atómicos y moleculares, proponiendo pesos atómicos a los elementos basándose en los datos experimentales conocidos. De esta manera se empezó a resolver muchos problemas de composición de los compuestos químicos (por ejemplo, en aquella época, la fórmula del agua podía ser H2O ó H2O2). Cannizzaro con sus intervenciones en el Congreso y con la distribución del documento a los participantes, contribuyó a «poner orden» en la Química.
A partir del Congreso de Karlsruhe empezó la sistematización de la Química. Se distinguió entre átomo y molécula, se asignaron pesos (masas) atómicos y moleculares aceptados por la comunidad química, se reconoció que ciertos elementos químicos eran diatómicos, se adoptaron fórmulas que representasen mejor los compuestos químicos (a propuesta de Kekulé), se profundizó en el concepto de valencia (a partir de los estudios de Frankland).
También, el Congreso de Karlsruhe fue el punto de partida para la organización regular de congresos de Química y para la consolidación de las sociedades químicas nacionales e internacionales que dieron lugar a la IUPAC (Unión Internacional de Química Pura y Aplicada) en 1919.
Espero que el año 2011, Año Internacional de la Química, suponga un revulsivo como lo fue el año 1860; quizás no tanto en el plano científico, sino en el de la influencia de la Química en la sociedad.
Bernardo Herradón
IQOG-CSIC
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Once I had read three posts the editorial pattern was clear, and a look at dylbray confirmed the pattern from a fourth angle, sites where the underlying approach reveals itself through accumulated reading rather than being announced are sites with real depth and this one has that quality clearly visible across multiple pieces consistently.
Just enjoyed the experience without needing to think about why, and a look at qinlji kept that effortless feeling going, sometimes the best content is invisible in the sense that you forget you are reading until you reach the end and realise time has passed without you noticing it pass naturally.
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Quietly impressive in a way that does not announce itself, and a stop at convertersa extended that quiet impressiveness, the kind of quality that emerges through sustained attention rather than first impressions is the kind I trust more deeply and this site has been earning that deeper trust across multiple sessions over time consistently.
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A piece that did not lean on the writer credentials or institutional backing, and a look at tatersa maintained the same focus on substance, content that earns trust through quality rather than through name dropping is the kind I find most persuasive and this site is clearly playing on the substance side of that distinction.
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Skipped lunch to finish reading, which says something, and a stop at christinahenderson kept me at my desk longer than planned, when content beats the lunch impulse the writer has done something genuinely impressive in an attention environment full of immediately satisfying alternatives competing for the same finite block of reader time.
Felt the writer respected me as a reader without making a show of doing so, and a look at blog44hits continued that quiet respect, this is the kind of small but meaningful detail that separates the sites I bookmark from the ones I close after a single skim and never return to again no matter how interesting the headline.
Привет, народ. Близкий человек потерял контроль. Родные не знают, как быть. В бесплатную наркологию — стыд и страх. Итог, реально крутые специалисты — выведение из запоя на дому анонимно. Прибыли через 30 минут. В общем, сохраните себе — вывод из запоя недорого нарколог24 https://vyvod-iz-zapoya-na-domu-sankt-peterburg-rpl.ru Звоните прямо сейчас. Вдруг это спасёт чью-то семью.
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Liked the natural conversational tone throughout, never stiff and never overly casual either, and a stop at acapparelstores kept that comfortable middle ground going, finding a tone that respects the reader without becoming distant or overly familiar is harder than it sounds and this site nails that balance consistently across many different pieces.
Now feeling that this site is the kind I want to make sure does not disappear, and a look at horizonhub reinforced that quiet protective feeling, the rare sites whose disappearance would actually matter to me are the sites I want to support through return visits and recommendations and this one has joined that small protected list.
Looking at this from the perspective of someone tired of generic content the contrast is striking, and a look at profitsonline maintained that distinctive feel, sites with strong editorial identity stand out against the bland background of algorithmic content and this one has clearly developed an identity worth recognising through careful attention.
Now noticing the post fit a particular gap in my reading without my having articulated the gap before, and a look at shularrfashion extended that gap filling effect, content that meets needs I had not consciously formulated is content with reader insight and this site has clearly developed that anticipatory editorial sense across many pieces.
Worth saying that the prose reads naturally without straining for style, and a stop at ridgeroute maintained the same unforced quality, writing that achieves elegance without effort is the highest tier and this site has clearly worked out how to land that effortless quality consistently rather than only on the writers best days.
Appreciate the practical examples, they made the abstract points easier to grasp, and a stop at showboxed added more of the same, this site clearly understands that real examples beat empty theory every single time which is the mark of a writer who knows their audience well and respects their time.
A handful of memorable phrases from this one I will probably use later, and a look at blog33add added a couple more, content that contributes language to my own communication rather than just facts is content with a different kind of utility and this site is providing that linguistic utility consistently across what I read.
Felt the post had been written without looking over its shoulder, and a look at hangzhoumemory continued that confident posture, content written for its own sake rather than against imagined critics has a different quality and this site reads as written from a place of confidence rather than defensive justification of every claim.
Bookmark earned and the bookmark feels like a permanent addition rather than a maybe, and a look at pomazok confirmed that permanent status, the difference between durable bookmarks and ephemeral ones is something I have learned to feel quickly and this site triggered the durable feeling almost immediately during my first read here.
Quietly building a case in my head for why this site deserves more attention than it currently seems to receive, and a look at javakey reinforced the case, the gap between quality and recognition is a recurring frustration in independent online content and this site is one of the cases that seems particularly egregious to me today.
Reading this in a relaxed evening setting was a small pleasure, and a stop at call-girl extended the pleasant evening reading, content that fits the tone of relaxed time without becoming forgettable is what I look for in evening reading and this site has the right tone for that particular slot in my daily reading routine.
Reading this felt easy in the best way, no friction and no confusion at any point, and a stop at robinhudson carried that same comfort across more pages, the kind of editorial flow that lets you absorb information without fighting the format which is increasingly hard to find on the open web today across topics.
My friends would appreciate a few of these posts and I will be sending links accordingly, and a look at davidmartin added more pages to my share queue, content that earns shares to specific people in specific contexts is content with social utility and this site is generating those targeted shares from me consistently lately.
Доброго вечера, земляки. Брат снова сорвался. Дети боятся заходить в квартиру. В наркологию тащить — стыд и страх. Короче, реально крутые специалисты — вывод из запоя цены фиксированные. Примчались за 20 минут. В общем, вся инфа по ссылке — вывод из запоя цена вывод из запоя цена Не ждите чуда. Перешлите тем, кто рядом с бедой.
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A piece that built up gradually rather than front loading its main points, and a look at orderright maintained the same gradual structure, content that trusts the reader to reach conclusions through accumulating reasoning is more persuasive than content that announces conclusions and then defends them and this site uses the persuasive approach.
Appreciate the practical examples, they made the abstract points easier to grasp, and a stop at worldeast added more of the same, this site clearly understands that real examples beat empty theory every single time which is the mark of a writer who knows their audience well and respects their time.
Good clean post, no errors and no awkward phrasing that breaks the reading flow, and a stop at sibbertoft kept the same standard, definitely the kind of editorial care that earns a return visit because it tells me the writer is paying attention to details that matter to readers rather than just rushing publication.
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A piece that read as if the writer was thinking carefully rather than just typing fluently, and a look at ashleyaustin continued that considered quality, the difference between fluent typing and careful thinking shows up in writing and this site reads as the product of thought rather than just the product of language fluency apparently.
Now considering carefully how to share this site with the right audience rather than broadcasting widely, and a look at pttva4 extended that careful sharing impulse, content worth sharing carefully rather than spamming is content that has earned a higher kind of recommendation and this site has earned that careful shareability throughout pieces.
Coming back to this one, definitely, and a quick visit to softthrive only made me more sure of that, the kind of writing that makes you want to set aside time later rather than rushing through it now while distracted by everything else competing for attention on the screen today across so many tabs.
Saving this link for the next time someone asks me about this topic, and a look at softsavanna expanded what I will be sharing with them, this is the kind of resource that makes a real difference when you are trying to point a friend to something useful and reliable rather than generic marketing pages.
Now setting aside time on my next free afternoon to read more from the archives, and a stop at sleeppower confirmed that time will be well spent, the rare site whose archive deserves a dedicated reading session rather than just casual sampling is the kind of resource worth scheduling around and this one qualifies clearly.
Воронеж, всем привет Голова раскалывается Организм просто отказывается работать Короче, врачи приехали и поставили систему — капельница от похмелья быстрый результат Приехали через 30 минут В общем, жмите чтобы сохранить — прокапать от алкоголя на дому https://kapelnicza-ot-pokhmelya-voronezh-xqt.ru Звоните прямо сейчас Перешлите тем кто в такой же ситуации
Liked the natural conversational tone throughout, never stiff and never overly casual either, and a stop at kevingriffin kept that comfortable middle ground going, finding a tone that respects the reader without becoming distant or overly familiar is harder than it sounds and this site nails that balance consistently across many different pieces.
Worth pointing out that the writing reads as confident without being defensive about it, and a look at routepoint extended that secure tone, content that does not pre emptively argue against imagined critics has a different quality from defensive writing and this site reads as written from a place of real ease.
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Reading this in a moment of low energy still kept my attention, and a stop at synergista continued that engagement under suboptimal conditions, content that survives the reader being tired is content with extra reserves of pull and this site has the kind of writing that holds up even when I am not at my reading best.