![]()
Congreso de Karlsruhe: 150 años.
Hoy se cumplen 150 años de la inauguración del Congreso de Karlsruhe, que marcó el comienzo de la Química moderna.
Antes del Congreso, la Química era un caos. Los químicos de la época (muchos de ellos brillantísimos con gran influencia en la historia de la ciencia) no se ponían de acuerdo sobre la existencia o no (y la distinción) entre átomo y molécula; había una enorme confusión entre peso atómico (asignando pesos atómicos distintos a los mismos elementos), peso molecular y peso equivalente; y no había acuerdo en la nomenclatura, formulación y símbolos químicos.
Para intentar debatir ideas y llegar a algún acuerdo sobre los aspectos indicados en el párrafo anterior, Kekulé, Wurtz y Weltzien convocaron un congreso para los días 3, 4 y 5 de septiembre de 1860 en la ciudad alemana de Karlsruhe. Se invitó a todos los químicos del mundo y el Congreso tuvo una gran asistencia, con 127 participantes de 12 países (un español, el profesor Ramon Torres, de la universidad central de Madrid), la mayoría (126) de países europeos y un mexicano (Posselt). Algunos de los químicos más destacados asistieron, entre los que cabe citar a Bunsen, Baeyer, Erlenmeyer, Hoffmann, Meyer, Frankland, Kekulé, Dumas, Wurtz, Crum Brown, Borodin (el famoso músico, también profesor de Química) y Wislicenus. Al congreso también asistieron dos jóvenes químicos, Cannizzaro (1826-1910) y Mendeleev (1834-1907). Uno de ellos (Cannizzaro) tuvo una influencia enorme en el desarrollo del Congreso; y el otro (Mendeleev) recibió inspiración fundamental para desarrollar la Tabla Periódica de los Elementos Químicos (1869).
Stanislao Cannizzaro, basándose en la hipótesis de Avogadro, había elaborado un documento (adaptado a partir de uno escrito en 1858, Sunto di un corso di Filosofia Chimica) explicando las diferencias entre átomo y molécula; así como en las distinciones entre pesos atómicos y moleculares, proponiendo pesos atómicos a los elementos basándose en los datos experimentales conocidos. De esta manera se empezó a resolver muchos problemas de composición de los compuestos químicos (por ejemplo, en aquella época, la fórmula del agua podía ser H2O ó H2O2). Cannizzaro con sus intervenciones en el Congreso y con la distribución del documento a los participantes, contribuyó a «poner orden» en la Química.
A partir del Congreso de Karlsruhe empezó la sistematización de la Química. Se distinguió entre átomo y molécula, se asignaron pesos (masas) atómicos y moleculares aceptados por la comunidad química, se reconoció que ciertos elementos químicos eran diatómicos, se adoptaron fórmulas que representasen mejor los compuestos químicos (a propuesta de Kekulé), se profundizó en el concepto de valencia (a partir de los estudios de Frankland).
También, el Congreso de Karlsruhe fue el punto de partida para la organización regular de congresos de Química y para la consolidación de las sociedades químicas nacionales e internacionales que dieron lugar a la IUPAC (Unión Internacional de Química Pura y Aplicada) en 1919.
Espero que el año 2011, Año Internacional de la Química, suponga un revulsivo como lo fue el año 1860; quizás no tanto en el plano científico, sino en el de la influencia de la Química en la sociedad.
Bernardo Herradón
IQOG-CSIC
Доброго дня, земляки. Отец не выходит из штопора. Родственники не знают, что делать. Платная клиника — бешеные счета. Короче, реально крутые врачи — недорогой вывод из запоя в Санкт-Петербурге. Сняли интоксикацию. В общем, не потеряйте — вывод из запоя на дому спб цены https://vyvod-iz-zapoya-na-domu-sankt-peterburg-qbf.ru Не ждите. Вдруг это спасёт чью-то жизнь.
Even from a single post the editorial care is clear, and a stop at blog66hotels extended that care across more pages, the kind of attention to quality that shows up in every paragraph is what separates serious sites from the rest and this one has clearly invested in that paragraph level attention across what I have read.
Taking the time to read carefully here has been worthwhile for the past hour, and a look at bealaa extended the worthwhile reading, the calculation of return on reading time spent is something I do informally and this site has been producing positive returns across multiple sessions during the last week of regular visits and reads.
Now adjusting my expectations upward for the topic based on this post, and a stop at expoteco continued that bar raising effect, content that resets what I think is possible on a subject is doing real work in shaping my standards and this site is providing those bar raising experiences at a notable rate during sessions.
Following the post through to the end without my attention drifting once, and a look at blog33about earned the same uninterrupted attention, content that holds attention without manipulating it is content with substantive pull and this site has demonstrated that substantive pull across multiple pieces in a single reading session reliably here today.
A piece that read as if the writer was thinking carefully rather than just typing fluently, and a look at dachshundsa continued that considered quality, the difference between fluent typing and careful thinking shows up in writing and this site reads as the product of thought rather than just the product of language fluency apparently.
Adding this to my list of go to references for the topic, and a stop at leonardward confirmed the rest of the site deserves the same, definitely the kind of resource that earns its place rather than getting forgotten the moment the next interesting article shows up in my feed somewhere else on the web.
Closed the tab feeling I had spent the time well, and a stop at zinclink extended that feeling across more pages, the test of whether time on a site was well spent is one I apply silently after closing tabs and very few sites pass it but this one passed it cleanly today afternoon clearly.
Glad I gave this fifteen minutes rather than the usual three minute skim, and a look at radicalweb earned the same investment, time spent on quality content is rarely wasted but the reverse is also true and learning which sites deserve which kind of attention is part of being a careful online reader.
Thanks for putting this online without locking it behind email signups or paywalls, and a quick visit to editionelm kept that open feel going, content that trusts the reader to come back rather than gating access is the kind of approach I will reward with regular return visits over time happily.
Now adjusting my mental list of reliable sites for this topic, and a stop at paulrobertson reinforced the adjustment, the small ongoing curation work of maintaining trusted sources is one of the actual practical activities of careful reading and this site has earned a permanent place on my list for this particular subject.
Learned something from this without having to dig through layers of fluff, and a stop at hollycline added a bit more context that helped tie things together for me, definitely a useful corner of the internet for anyone who wants real information without the usual marketing nonsense around it that often ruins similar pages.
A particular kind of restraint shows up in the writing, and a look at robertcampbell maintained the same restraint across pages, knowing what not to say is just as important as knowing what to say and this site has clearly developed strong instincts on both sides of that editorial line throughout pieces I have read.
Comfortable in tone and substantive in content, that is a hard combination to land, and a look at appcrown kept that pairing alive across more material, this is what good editorial direction looks like in practice and the team here clearly has someone keeping a steady hand on the wheel across what they decide to publish.
If I were grading sites on this topic this one would receive high marks, and a stop at blog44throws continued earning those high marks, the informal grading I do mentally for content sources is something I take seriously even though it is informal and this site has been receiving consistent high marks across multiple sessions today.
Refreshing to read something where the words actually mean something instead of filling space, and a stop at katherinekrause kept that going, the writing here trusts the reader to follow along without endless repetition or constant reminders of what was already said earlier in the post which I appreciate.
Всем привет с Невы. Отец окончательно ушёл в штопор. Соседи стучат в стену. Платная клиника — огромные счета. Короче, реально крутые специалисты — вывод из запоя на дому круглосуточно. Врач поставил капельницу. В общем, вся инфа по ссылке — нарколог вывод из запоя нарколог вывод из запоя Не ждите чуда. Вдруг это спасёт чью-то жизнь.
Glad the writer did not feel the need to argue with imaginary critics in the post itself, and a stop at softpalm kept the same focused approach going, defensive writing wastes the reader time and confidence on positions that did not need defending and this post has clearly avoided that common failure.
Reading this in a moment of low energy still kept my attention, and a stop at apparmor continued that engagement under suboptimal conditions, content that survives the reader being tired is content with extra reserves of pull and this site has the kind of writing that holds up even when I am not at my reading best.
Better than most of the writing I have come across on this topic recently, simpler and more direct, and a look at webskins continued in that same way, a real outlier in a crowded space full of repetitive content that says little while taking up a lot of reader time today which is unfortunate.
Worth recognising that the post handled a familiar topic without reaching for any of the obvious hot takes, and a stop at karenday continued that fresh treatment, sites that find new angles on subjects others have exhausted are sites worth following carefully and this one has clearly developed that exploratory instinct through patient practice.
Reading this gave me material for a conversation I needed to have anyway, and a stop at pananole added even more talking points, content that connects to upcoming social or professional needs rather than just being interesting in the abstract is the kind that earns priority placement in my attention these days routinely.
Skimmed first and then went back to read carefully, and the careful read paid off in places I had missed, and a stop at malabardiocese got the same treatment, the rare site whose content rewards a second pass is content I want more of in my regular rotation rather than disposable single read articles.
Solid endorsement from me, the writing earns it, and a look at a-nz46 continues to earn it across the broader site too, the kind of operation that maintains quality across many pages rather than just one viral post is a sign of serious commitment and that is what I see here clearly across what I read.
The whole experience of reading this was pleasant from start to finish, no pop ups and no annoying interruptions, and a look at blog33mother continued that clean experience, technical choices about page design matter for the reader and this site clearly cares about the small details that add up to comfort across multiple visits.
Closed the post with a small satisfied sigh, and a stop at bookwardsa produced the same gentle exhale, content that ends well is content that respects the rhythm of reading and the writers here have clearly thought about how their pieces close rather than just trailing off when they run out of things to say.
Genuinely good work, the kind that holds up over multiple readings without losing its appeal, and a stop at drnicoleweaver kept that going, definitely a site I will be returning to and probably mentioning to others who work in or care about this particular area of interest today and in coming weeks.
Доброго дня Голова раскалывается Организм просто отказывается работать Короче, нашел реально работающий способ — капельница от похмелья на дому срочно Приехали через 30 минут В общем, жмите чтобы сохранить — капельница от запоя недорого https://kapelnicza-ot-pokhmelya-voronezh-mnb.ru Звоните прямо сейчас Перешлите тем кто в такой же ситуации
Now feeling the quiet pleasure of finding writing that takes itself seriously without being self serious, and a stop at joshnorman extended that subtle pleasure, the gap between earnest and pretentious is fine and this site has clearly chosen to land on the earnest side without slipping over into pretentious which is impressive.
Now wishing more sites covered topics with this level of care, and a look at zealwork extended that wish across more subjects, the rarity of careful coverage on most topics is a problem and this site is one of the small antidotes to that broader pattern of casual or surface treatment of complex subjects.
Felt the post was written for someone like me without explicitly addressing me, and a look at zincbyte produced the same fit, when content lands on its target without pandering you know the writer has done careful audience thinking rather than relying on demographic targeting or interest signals to do the work of editorial decisions.
A quiet piece that did not try to compete on volume, and a look at devlaurel maintained that selective approach, sites that publish less but better are increasingly rare in an environment that rewards volume and this one has clearly chosen quality cadence over quantity which is a brave editorial decision in current conditions.
A piece that demonstrated competence without performing it, and a look at dylanbell maintained the same self assured but unshowy register, the gap between competence and performance of competence is one I track and this site has clearly chosen to demonstrate rather than perform which I find much more persuasive as a reader.
Now thinking about whether the writer might publish a longer form work I would buy, and a look at zonezero suggested the same depth would translate, content that makes me want to pay for related work in other formats is content that has earned commercial trust as well as attention trust and this site has both clearly.
Now adjusting my mental list of reliable sites for this topic, and a stop at appfalls reinforced the adjustment, the small ongoing curation work of maintaining trusted sources is one of the actual practical activities of careful reading and this site has earned a permanent place on my list for this particular subject.
Worth saying this site reads better than most paid newsletters I have tried, and a stop at joshuayoder confirmed that comparison, the bar for free content is often lower than for paid but this site clears the paid bar consistently and that says something about the editorial approach behind the work being published here regularly.
Всем привет из северной столицы. Ужас в семье. Соседи уже вызывали участкового. Платная клиника — бешеные счета. Короче, единственные, кто приехал быстро — срочный вывод из запоя с капельницей. Сняли интоксикацию. В общем, жмите, чтобы сохранить — вывод из запоя на дому спб цены https://vyvod-iz-zapoya-na-domu-sankt-peterburg-qbf.ru Не ждите. Перешлите тем, кто в беде.
Will share this on a forum I am part of where it will be appreciated by others working in the same area, and a look at richardmorales suggests there is more here worth passing along too, definitely a generous resource that deserves a wider audience than it probably has today across the open internet.
Once I had read three posts the editorial pattern was clear, and a look at earthingshoes confirmed the pattern from a fourth angle, sites where the underlying approach reveals itself through accumulated reading rather than being announced are sites with real depth and this one has that quality clearly visible across multiple pieces consistently.
Just enjoyed the experience without needing to think about why, and a look at eastwoodcenter kept that effortless feeling going, sometimes the best content is invisible in the sense that you forget you are reading until you reach the end and realise time has passed without you noticing it pass naturally.
Worth a slow read rather than the fast scan I usually default to, and a look at appalpha earned the same slower pace from me, content that resets my reading speed downward is content with substance worth absorbing and this site has produced that effect on me multiple times now over the last week here.
Solid endorsement from me, the writing earns it, and a look at robertbernard continues to earn it across the broader site too, the kind of operation that maintains quality across many pages rather than just one viral post is a sign of serious commitment and that is what I see here clearly across what I read.
The tone stayed consistent across the whole post which is harder than it looks for longer pieces, and a look at sagestack continued the same voice, this kind of editorial consistency is a sign of either a single careful writer or a tightly run team and either is impressive today across the broader media environment.
Now considering carefully how to share this site with the right audience rather than broadcasting widely, and a look at eatworld extended that careful sharing impulse, content worth sharing carefully rather than spamming is content that has earned a higher kind of recommendation and this site has earned that careful shareability throughout pieces.
Solid post, the structure is easy to follow and the language stays simple even when the topic gets a bit more involved, and a look at voltajapan kept that same standard going, so I left feeling like the time spent here was actually worth something for once which is rare lately.
Reading this on a phone at a coffee shop and finding it perfectly suited to that context, and a stop at miltonanglican continued the comfortable mobile experience, content that works across reading conditions without compromising on substance is increasingly important and this site has clearly thought about the whole reader experience here.
Will be coming back to this for sure, too much good content to absorb in one sitting, and a stop at jillspence only added more pages I want to dig through, this site is going onto my regular rotation list because it consistently delivers something worth the visit lately rather than empty filler.
Adding to the bookmarks now before I forget, that is how good this is, and a look at alpineapp confirmed the rest of the site is worth saving too, this is one of those rare finds that justifies the time spent searching the web for once which is a relief in the current environment.
Now noticing that the post did not mention the writer at all, focus stayed on the topic, and a look at voidverse continued that author absent quality, content that disappears the writer to focus on the substance is a particular kind of generosity and this site has clearly chosen the substance over the personality consistently.
Quietly the post solved something I had been turning over without quite knowing how to phrase the question, and a look at biffya extended that quiet solving, content that addresses unformulated needs is content with reader insight and this site has demonstrated that insight at a high rate across the pieces I have read recently.